Cognitive Behavioral Theory

Cognitive Behavioral Theory The Cognitive-Behavioral theory is a form of short-term therapy used by counselors in the psychology and social work fields. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) encourages a blending of behavioral and cognitive therapy models. The theory is based in the belief that the clients behaviors and feelings are heavily influenced by their thoughts. A CBT therapist plays an active role in helping the client prioritize their problems, recognize the maladaptive thoughts that are behind their problems and feelings, and devise and implement goal-oriented changes in their thinking. Background Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) places significant importance on how negative thinking impacts our emotions and behaviors. Dr. Aaron Beck observed that many of his clients had automatic thoughts emotion-filled thoughts that might pop up in the mind (Martin, 2007). Many of these thoughts are not consciously known to the client; however through practice the client can learn to identify the negative and irrational thought. Upon identification the client can then learn to overcome the thoughts. CBT is based on a model or theory that its not events themselves that upset us, but the meanings we give them (Martin, 2007). These automatic thoughts can cause us to become blind to new ideas and have the ability to overcome obstacles. A persons automatic thoughts are rooted in belief systems that were embedded in their subconscious from childhood. When an event happens a person uses these belief systems to help them cope with their difficulties. If there is negative thinking in the persons b elief system, they are more likely to misconstrue the event or issue as too difficult to handle. Cognitive Therapy Cognitive therapy focuses on peoples thoughts and how they affect their emotional, behavioral, and physiological reactions to stressful situations. People often have difficulty thinking rationally when feeling pressured by disturbing life experiences. Through cognitive therapy, clients are able to identify and challenge their thoughts about themselves, the people around them, and the world around them. Behavioral Therapy Behavioral therapy in its most basic state is the encouragement of clients to engage in adaptive behaviors and not to allow pathological internal experiences to dictate the ways in which they act (Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, 2012). Solutions under the behavioral theory closely follow Pavlovs classical and operant conditioning philosophies. A clients negative responses to normal stimuli are typically learned behaviors, because something negative happened the last time the stimulus was present. Through a process called extinction, therapists often try to change a clients negative responses by showing the client that the negative result does not always occur with the stimulus. Using operant conditioning a client will be more likely to engage in activities and behaviors in a positive manner, if they have previously received positive outcomes. If the consequences of their behavior have been negative, they are less like to repeat that behavior. Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) One form of behavioral therapy, founded in the 1950s by Albert Ellis, was Rational-Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT). REBT focuses on the clients current, irrational thoughtsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and actively targets them for change (Fraum, 2012). Through REBT the client confronts their irrational beliefs and expectations. After confrontation, the client and therapist are able to develop realistic thinking. Only after these two things are accomplished is the client able to change. Epictetus wrote in The Enchiridion, Men are disturbed not by things, but by the view which they take of them (National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists, 2008). Dialectical Behavior Therapy Another behavioral therapy that is a form of cognitive-behavioral therapy is Dialectical Behavior Therapy. Based heavily in philosophy, the main tenet of this therapy looks at two opposing views and works through the therapeutic relationship to blend them together to find a happy medium. The counselor does not make the client feel that their thoughts are invalid or incorrect, but guides them to understanding that their behavior needs to change. This therapy is most often used for clients who have been diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder. (National Institute of Mental Health, 2012) Commonalities of Cognitive Therapy and Behavioral Therapy Although there are a few differences between cognitive and behavioral approaches, there are some similarities that allow these two methods to be blended into the cognitive-behavioral approach. In CBT, the client and the therapist work together as a team to help the client overcome their troubles. Often CBT is a short-term counseling method that, typically, only lasts a few months, but it is also a rigorous therapy, in that the clients must utilize their new skills in between sessions through homework. CBT therapists seldom dig deeply into why a client is having the irrational thoughts, but rather stay focused in the present and future. (Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, 2012) Notable People There are many notable people who have influenced Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy. Dr. Aaron Beck is considered the father of cognitive therapy. Another notable person in the field of cognitive therapy is Dr. Martin Seligman, who is known mostly for his development of learned helplessness. Some key players in the development of behavioral therapy include Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and B. F. Skinner. In 1955, Albert Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. He is considered the founder of cognitive-behavioral theory. Dr. Samuel Yochelson and Stanton Samenow are known for their collaborative research and findings in the treatment programs of juvenile and adult criminal offenders. Aaron T. Beck, M.D. Dr. Aaron Beck started his career with as the Assistant Chief of Neuropsychiatry in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Department Of Psychiatry, Penn Behavioral Health, n.d.). In 1954, he joined the University of Pennsylvanias Psychiatry Department. While there, he explored psychoanalysis which led to his development of cognitive therapy. (Beck Institute for Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, n.d.) Through his research he realized that his clients had negative thoughts that popped into their heads automatic thoughts. These automatic thoughts centered on themselves, the world and the future. These distorted thoughts then begin to affect the clients lives leading to the disorders they are diagnosed with. Ultimately they stem from a persons core belief systems and are formed throughout the persons life. (Beck, 1997) Albert Ellis, Ph.D. REBT was developed by Dr. Ellis in the 1950s. After spending several years practicing psychoanalysis, he found the he disliked the in-efficient and in-directive nature (National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists, 2008). Dr. Ellis established the ABC model of emotions, which was later modified into A-B-C-D-E approach. Sessions Cognitive-behavioral therapy sessions have a structure. Structure is important, because it allows for the most effective use of time. CBT sessions are usually only about 50 minutes long, happen once a week or once every two weeks, and only continue for a few months to a year. In the beginning of therapy the client and counselor discuss what issues and trouble the client is having. Next, they work on prioritizing the issues. These activities fall under stage I of the Egan Model. Under stage II, the client discusses their ideal self or what they want. This allows the client, with the guidance of the helper, to set realistic goals for themselves. In the final stage, the client and counselor explore the options available and there are always options and find the option or options that best work for the client. The last step is to produce an action plan. Throughout the process the client often has homework. This homework is usually meant to help the client identify the triggers for their anxiety or problems and the feelings that surround those events. As the process moves forward the assignments will coincide with whatever step the client is currently working on. Techniques Due to the blending of theories and therapies, there are more than three dozen techniques available to cognitive-behavioral therapists. The selection includes cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques that make a well-rounded selection that can be tailored to the individual clients needs and wants. The ABC (also known as the ABCDE) Technique is most closely identified by its creator, Dr. Ellis, and under REBT. Other major techniques include cognitive reconstruction, exposure, reframing, and journal writing. Another widely used, yet somewhat controversial technique is self-disclosure. ABC/ABCDE Technique or Rational Self-Analysis Dr. Ellis created this technique to help people identify and understand why they are behaving the way they are to certain Activating Events. The Activating Event ((A)) is often seen as the reason for the clients initial emotions and behaviors (Consequences or (C)). In reality there is another step in between the clients Beliefs ((B)). While the (A) triggers the (C), the (B) is what actually causes the (C). Dr. Ellis went continued to develop this technique and it was later modified to include three additional steps Disputing ((D)), New Effect ((E)), and Further Action ((F)). Once the client has been able to identify the (A), (B), and (C), they are then able to move forward and challenge their Beliefs through Disputing. They, also, evaluate how they would prefer to feel or behave the New Effect. Finally, the client develops their Further Action plan to avoid a relapse. Cognitive Restructuring While Rational Self-Analysis is part of the process of Cognitive Restructuring, it is not the whole process. Cognitive Restructuring is a set of techniques that helps the client identify, challenge, and change their distorted thoughts. Common thought distortions often include words like: always, must, and never. They also stem from Dr. Elliss list of irrational beliefs (appendix A) and a list of cognitive distortions influenced by Dr. Beck (appendix B). There is a Cognitive Restructuring Worksheet (Appendix C) that counselors and clients may find useful in when utilizing this technique. Exposure Exposure Therapy is an emotionally intense, yet effective way for clients to confront their fears, especially those with anxiety disorders. Through a series of extremely carefully planned sessions, the client is introduced or exposed to the trigger (stimuli) that is causing the anxiety (classically conditioned response). Over time the client is able to see and comprehend that nothing bad will happen and the anxiety lessens. The therapist often uses Exposure Therapy in conjunction with relaxation skills and cognitive reconstruction techniques. In addition to anxiety disorders, an adaptation of Exposure Therapy is sometimes used for people with sexual disorders. Self-disclosure Self-disclosure is when the therapist briefly tells the client something personal about themselves that may be of value to the client and the therapeutic relationship. This technique can be difficult to manage effectively and is somewhat controversial. If the therapist is going to utilize this technique, they must use it carefully and sparingly. Where this technique can become problematic is when the focus shifts from the client to counselor. Too much divulging of information can lead to the client being uncomfortable or feeling like the relationship has changed. When used appropriately; however it can show the therapists empathy to the situation the client is facing. Case Study Synopsis Client is a 52-year-old female widower with two daughters. Her husband died seven years ago. Her relatives live 50 miles away. Client was accused of a work-related incident, after which she became anxious. Client is currently on medication with effects consistent with an antidepressant. Presenting problems included poor memory, lack of concentration, confusion and slowness. The client met the DSM-IV criteria for a major depressive episode. The client was given several clinical scales to rate herself on. These scales were completed prior to every session and discussed briefly during the session.as a means of verifying efficacy. The therapist used the five systems model to help the client analyze her thoughts and recognized negative automatic thoughts and behaviors. She was given daily activity monitoring sheets, although she was successful at many activities very few gave her any pleasure. Due, in part, to years of sexual abuse by her father, the client felt that something was wrong w ith her. She felt like she didnt fit into her family. By using a more detailed variation of the ABC Technique, the client and therapist were able to identify stressful situations; discuss the emotions, behavior and physical reactions to the situations; and recognized the underlying negative beliefs. The therapist utilized behavioral experiments to help the client challenge her core beliefs and recognize the differences in how she felt. Final Thoughts I chose this theory because I felt that it is the one I was most likely going to use, when I become a licensed psychologist. The multiple views and varied techniques available for the client make it seem like the one theory that can be tailor fit for each individual. What I found out through my research; however, is that the cognitive-behavioral approach does not dig deeply into the why someone has the beliefs they do. The why is what drew me to the field of psychology and human services in the first place, so I need to investigate other theories, career opportunities, and techniques to find my right fit. Ideally, I would like to investigate the criminal mind more closely and help the prison population overcome their psychopathological issues. I still feel that many of the cognitive-behavioral techniques can be useful in discovering the why, so I will likely use them in my ultimate career field.

Digestive System

Our digestive systems contain glands. These glands produce enzymes. Enzymes are catalysts. Catalysts make chemical reactions happen quicker and easier. Digestive enzymes help us to break down food easier. Our bodies make lots of different digestive enzymes. Each enzyme breaks down a particular food. When an enzyme has broken down one food molecule, it can then break down another molecule of the same kind. It can do this over and over again. It makes the reaction happen without being used up. In the digestive system, enzymes are produced to break down carbohydrates, proteins and fats into smaller soluble molecules from large food molecules. These spread through the tube of the small intestine and into the blood plasma (carbohydrates and proteins) or lymph (fats) and pass to the cells. The stomach makes hydrochloric acid to help the enzyme called pepsin work. Fats are difficult to digest and absorb because they are not soluble in water. To help with fat digestion the gall bladder produces bile this makes the fats smaller. This increases their surface area for enzymes to act on. In the mouth is saliva and they containing amylase produced by the salivary glands. This enzyme is used to break down starch/carbohydrates into glucose molecules. In the stomach is found Pepsin which breaks down proteins into amino acids. In the small intestine, parts of a large molecule of fat are broken down into smaller fatty acid and glycerol molecules. Below is how the different foods are digested by using enzymes: 1. Carbohydrates – Foods rich in carbohydrates include bread, potatoes, dried peas and beans, rice, pasta, fruits, and vegetables. Many of these foods contain both starch and fibre. The digestible carbohydrates such as starch and sugar are broken into simpler molecules by enzymes in the saliva, in juice produced by the pancreas, and in the lining of the small intestine. Starch is digested in two steps. First, an enzyme in the saliva and pancreatic juice breaks the starch into molecules called maltose. Then an enzyme in the lining of the small intestine splits the maltose into glucose molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. Glucose is carried through he bloodstream to the liver, where it is stored or used to provide energy for the work of the body. Sugars are digested in one step. An enzyme in the lining of the small intestine digests sucrose, also known as table sugar, into glucose and fructose, which are absorbed through the intestine into the blood. Milk contains another type of sugar, lactose, which is changed into absorbable molecules by another enzyme in the intestinal lining. 2. Protein – Foo ds such as meat, eggs, and beans consist of giant molecules of protein that must be digested by enzymes before they can be used to build and repair body tissues. An enzyme in the juice of the stomach starts the digestion of swallowed protein. Then in the small intestine, several enzymes from the pancreatic juice and the lining of the intestine complete the breakdown of huge protein molecules into small molecules called amino acids. These small molecules can be absorbed through the small intestine into the blood and then be carried to all parts of the body to build the walls and other parts of cells. 3. Fats – Fat molecules are a rich source of energy for the body. The first step in digestion of a fat such as butter is to dissolve it into the watery content of the intestine. The bile acids produced by the liver dissolve fat into tiny droplets and allow pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to break the large fat molecules into smaller ones. Some of these small molecules are fatty acids and cholesterol. The bile acids combine with the fatty acids and cholesterol and help these molecules move into the cells of the mucosa. In these cells the small molecules are formed back into large ones, most of which pass into vessels near the intestine. These small vessels carry the reformed fat to the veins of the chest, and the blood carries the fat to storage depots in different parts of the body. There are two theories on the process of chemical digestion, and they are the ‘induced fit’ and the ‘lock and key’ theory. Enzymes are specific to reactants (known as substrates). That is, enzymes only catalyze one type of reaction. Induced fit is where an enzyme almost closes around the substrate like a baseball glove around the ball. And the induced fit model says that when a substrate binds to an enzyme, the enzyme temporarily changes shape to accommodate the substrate. While the enzyme is still specific to substrates, it is not as if the substrate is a perfect fit on the active site of the enzyme. After the reaction is complete, the enzyme returns back to its original shape, ready to be reused. Lock and key is simply that the theory states that an enzymes’ active site is the exact shape of the substrate, and that the substrate neatly fits in. Also another way to look at it is that the enzyme is like a lock, and the substrate is like a key. Only specific substrate works with an enzyme, just like a specific key is required for a lock. The lock represents the active site on the enzyme, where the substrate binds. So both are substrates specific, just one model states that the enzyme moulds to fit the substrate whereas the other says that the site is already shaped around the substrate. In recent research however, the lock and key model is disputed, with the induced fit being more likely. While the induced fit model is more likely to be correct from current evidence, the lock and key model is still used because it allows a simple diagrammatic way to understand the specificity of enzymes.

How Writing Is Important For The Creation Of Organized...

There is no doubt, that writing is one of the greatest innovations of all time. I would also argue that writing was essential for the creation of organized societies. Although languages have existed long before this great invention, writing offered a superior view in transferring even the most complex information of ideas, beliefs, and concepts from one person to another and to larger groups. The Bronze – Age is where writing first emerged. Pictograms, cuneiform tablets and hieroglyphs are just some of the very first forms of writings. In brief, pictograms, which later evolved into ideograms, used a pictorial symbol to convey a word or phrase. Cuneiform scripts used wedged-shaped characters impressed onto clay tablets. Lastly,†¦show more content†¦Cuneiform tablets allowed farmers to keep track of the quantity of produce cultivated and traded. The temples, which were usually the heads of certain civilizations, also used writing to control the flow of goods tha t were taken into and distributed out to its peoples. In a sense, this recording of information kept order in the city. It gave temple workers a purpose to continue their jobs and a clear understanding of what they would get in return for their efforts. Trade was not only enhanced within the city but with other distant territories as well. Several trade routes were formed and city-states began to turn into empires. One ancient trading port that formed near the Mediterranean was Ugarit. Ugarit was located in northern Syria (south of present day Turkey). The people of Ugarit spoke a Semitic language written in a cuneiform alphabet. Early writing systems assisted with the trade Ugarit had with other regions such as Cyprus and Egypt by writing down the transactions. Ugarit even developed its own alphabet – the Ugaritic alphabet. Throughout history, Greek, Hebrew, and Latin alphabets would later take some of the roots of the Ugaritic alphabet. Unquestionably, writing wa s a key part in the regulation of trade in the early city-states. Another important change in the political structure was the ability to write laws. Laws made governments much more organized, efficient, and manageable. It also allowed the thing we love paying today – taxes.

The Existence Of Evil Within The World Created By A Good God

The existence of evil in a world created by a good God Introduction It is by divine design that evil can exist in a world created by a good God. Evil would not exist if God did not will it into existence. Balance is also a major factor as to why evil has been brought into reality. Chinese philosophy of Ying and Yang has a great principle that states â€Å"that all things exist as inseparable and contradictory opposites (Cartwright, 2012).† Good cannot be recognized without the recognition of evil and vice versa. Good and evil are complementary to each other just like past-future, light-dark, or up-down (Cartwright, 2012). When anyone thinks about evil existing in the world, what they are truly referring to is the evil in people. The only entities on earth that have the ability to do evil or are aware of it s existence are humans. Every other entity on earth works exactly how it was originally designed to operate without the knowledge of evil. The creation of evil God is â€Å"the supreme or ultimate reality; the Being perfect in power, wisd om, and goodness who is worshipped as creator and ruler of the universe (God n.d.). † The key word in that particular definition is creator, which means to bring into existence, or ex nihilo. Humans do not posses this ability, they can only manipulate what has already been brought into existence. Evil ia a creation of God. There is only one logical way evil is not created by or connected to God and that is if evil came to be in existenceShow MoreRelatedAugustine and The Problem of Evil Essay886 Words   |  4 Pagesbeginning, God created the world. He created the earth, air, stars, trees and mortal animals, heaven above, the angels, every spiritual being. God looked at these things and said that they were good. However, if all that God created was good, from where does un-good come? How did evil creep into the universal picture? 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